300. DSC 201- 2.3- The Enlightenment and the Advent of Periodical Essays (1)

The Enlightenment, also known as the Age of Reason, was a cultural and intellectual movement that dominated Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries, influencing literature, philosophy, science, and politics. In English literature, the Enlightenment emphasized reason, logic, and empirical evidence over tradition, faith, and superstition. Writers sought to understand the world through rational inquiry and to promote ideals like individual liberty, scientific progress, and social reform.

Key Characteristics

English literature during the Enlightenment was characterized by a focus on clarity, balance, and proportion. Writers aimed to express ideas in a clear, concise manner, often avoiding the ornate language of earlier periods. Satire, essays, and didactic literature flourished, as these forms were well-suited to discussing moral, philosophical, and political issues.

Enlightenment writers were deeply concerned with the role of the individual in society and the nature of human progress. Reason and knowledge were seen as the keys to improving both personal virtue and society at large. Literature became a tool for promoting these ideas, challenging superstition, and advocating for social reforms, such as the abolition of slavery and the expansion of civil liberties.

Major Writers and their Works

One of the central figures of the English Enlightenment was John Locke, whose philosophical works, such as An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690), laid the groundwork for the movement. Locke argued that knowledge comes from sensory experience and that human beings are born as a "blank slate" (tabula rasa), shaping their ideas through experience. His ideas on government, individual rights, and education significantly influenced political thought and literature.

Alexander Pope was a leading poet of the period, known for his satirical verse and heroic couplets. His work An Essay on Man (1733–1734) explores human nature, reason, and the relationship between humanity and the universe, reflecting Enlightenment optimism in human potential.

Similarly, Jonathan Swift, another key figure, used satire to critique society. His famous work Gulliver's Travels (1726) is both a fantastical adventure and a scathing critique of human nature and political institutions.

Daniel Defoe is often credited with writing the first English novel, Robinson Crusoe (1719), which reflects Enlightenment values like self-reliance, individualism, and rational problem-solving. The novel explores human resilience, emphasizing reason and practical knowledge as tools for survival.

Enlightenment in English literature marked a shift toward rationality, scientific inquiry, and a focus on the individual. Writers like Locke, Pope, Swift, and Defoe used their works to promote reason, challenge traditional authority, and explore the potential for human progress, leaving a lasting impact on the intellectual and literary landscape of the time.

The Advent of the Periodical Essay

A periodical essay, a short, engaging piece on manners and morality, was typically published on a fixed and regular schedule, often weekly or even daily, within a larger periodical publication. These essays, popularized in 18th-century England, aimed to be both informative and enjoyable for a broad audience. 

 publication. Periodical essays are short nonfiction pieces appearing regularly in magazines or journals, often as part of a series. The 18th century was a golden age for periodical essays in English, with famous writers like Addison. Periodical essays were popular for their brief and varied content, appealing to a middle-class audience.

Notable periodical essayists of the 18th century include Joseph Addison, Richard Steele, Samuel Johnson, and Oliver Goldsmith.

18th Century Periodical Essay

"The formal properties of the periodical essay were largely defined through the practice of Joseph Addison and Steele in their two most widely read series, the "Tatler" (1709-1711) and the "Spectator" (1711-1712; 1714). Many characteristics of these two papers--the fictitious nominal proprietor, the group of fictitious contributors who offer advice and observations from their special viewpoints, the miscellaneous and constantly changing fields of discourse, the use of exemplary character sketches, letters to the editor from fictitious correspondents, and various other typical features--existed before Addison and Steele set to work, but these two wrote with such effectiveness and cultivated such attention in their readers that the writing in the Tatler and Spectator served as the models for periodical writing in the next seven or eight decades." 

Charles Lamb, in his serial Essays of Elia (published in the London Magazine during the 1820s), intensified the self-expressiveness of the experientialist essayistic voice. Thomas De Quincey's periodical essays blended autobiography and literary criticism, and William Hazlitt sought in his periodical essays to combine 'the literary and the conversational.'" 

The Tatler and The Spectator:

The Tatler, launched in 1709, and The Spectator, launched in 1711, are prime examples. The Tatler was published three times a week (Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays).

 Language, Style and Tone

Both Addison and Steele use the English language in a way that sets their essays apart from the floral style adopted by many British prose writers of the 16th and 17th centuries. As their target audiences were ordinary middle class men and women, these writers adopted a simplicity

of vocabulary and syntax that did not task the readers’ skills of comprehension nor abused their sense of genteel propriety. Addison’s style in ‘A Sunday at Sir Roger’s’ is representative of his usual manner of writing in most of the Coverley papers. He portrays Sir Roger as a well- intentioned and affable if slightly eccentric man, who has many typical behavioral traits of a

country knight. Through the acutely perceptive voice of the narrator, Addison brings to the fore the little follies that distinguish Sir Roger’s social conduct and make him a more believable character than he would have been without these slight imperfections to set off his virtues. Thus, for instance, Mr. Spectator notes that Sir Roger “will suffer nobody to sleep in (the church) besides himself”, and “if by chance he has been surprised into a short nap at sermon, upon recovering out of it he stands up and looks about him, and if he sees anybody else nodding, either

wakes them himself, or sends his servant to them” (emphases added). The tone of these lines is so gently ironic that one can almost visualize Mr. Spectator smiling to himself as he makes these humorous observations. There is no admonition or sarcasm in these lines, only a mildly amused indulgence that makes the narrator’s voice the prism through which the reader sees the world inhabited by Sir Roger and his villagers. In another instance, the narrator describes how Sir

Roger loudly chides one of his parishioners for being distracted while the whole congregation was praying. By thus pointing out the contradictions between the intent of his words and the effects of his own actions, the narrator subtly describes, in a tone that is discerning yet not reprimanding, funny yet not mocking, Sir Roger's conduct as marked by odd foibles that make him all the more likeable. As an outsider in Sir Roger’s world, Mr. Spectator serves as the perfect mouthpiece for Addison to express his assessment of the squire’s character in a manner that is neutral and objective without being overly critical or indifferent. Addison also highlights the importance of church-going in the communal life of villagers without sounding prescriptive

or dull. Thus, even when he emphasizes the alleviating influence of the church on its members, he prefers to use a simple, homely metaphor – "Sunday clears away the rust of the whole week" – that effectively conveys his meaning without sounding overburdened with the seriousness of the lesson he seeks to impart. The careful choice of words here represents Addison's larger purpose in writing such essays: that is, to instruct his readers in matters of manners and morals

without sounding distant or condescending. In fact, this fine balance between the seriousness of meaning and the simplicity of form has been famously described by Samuel Johnson as

Addison's "middle style" and is indicative of his awareness of the tastes of his readers, a majority of whom were middle class people who wished to learn about proper social conduct. In comparison to Addison, Steele has a more direct approach to his subject matter. The

subtle irony and humour that characterize Addison’s style assume a more analytical edge in Steele’s hands. Thus, in ‘The Coverley Household’, Mr. Spectator makes several deductions about Sir Roger’s character based on the equation he shares with his servants rather than simply

reporting what he sees. He begins with a general observation that sets the tone of the essay: The reception, manner of attendance, undisturbed freedom, and quiet, which I meet with here in the country, has confirmed me in the opinion I always had, that the general corruption of manners in servants is owing to the conduct of masters. The narrator presents a series of similar observations throughout the essay, using Sir Roger’s

management of his household as an exemplary case to defend his central thesis, that goodness in a servant reflects the goodness of the master. He infers that Sir Roger’s equanimity in his dealings with his servants arises from his careful management of his estate, which ensures that he is never anxious or frustrated about the performance of his duties as landlord. Steele is more unreserved than Addison in praising Sir Roger’s performance of his duties as the lord and master of his household, just as he is more forthright with his censure of those gentlemen who are inconsistent or unfair in their conduct with their servants. Thus, Mr. Spectator reminds the reader of “the sense that great persons in all ages have had of the merit of their dependents, and the heroic services which men have done their masters in the extremity of their fortunes”. The balanced structure of the sentence here is typical of Steele’s style in the essay and reflects his appreciation of the mutual respect and harmony existing between social classes and his idealization of the master-servant relation in the specific context of Sir Roger’s household. The tone of the narrator is approbatory but not patronizing, as Sir Roger is held up as a role model for

men of his position who often fail in their duties towards their servants and consequently lose the respect they consider to be due to their class.

Conclusion

The turn of the 18th century was popularly perceived as marking a significant shift away from the decadence that characterized King Charles II’s reign and the beginning of a new “Augustan” age. Addison and Steele emerged as the social prophets of this new age, guiding

their readers in matters of good manners, taste and morals in a mode that avoided the formality of a sermon and substituted it with the appeal of identifiable character ‘types’. Through the periodical essay, Addison and Steele addressed as well as created a new readership for literature

in 18th century England, one whose members were mostly London-based professionals who desired to be entertained as well as instructed in matters of social decorum. By addressing issues that were topical and relevant to this emergent audience, Addison and Steele transformed the genre of the essay itself from a serious, lengthy, classical mode of philosophical or literary deliberation into something that was quick and easy to read and comprehend. These authors can also be credited with the evolution of a distinct prose style that eschewed the complexity of philosophy, law and religion and introduced a lighter register devoid of crudeness. The famous

18th century scholar and critic Samuel Johnson praised Addison's prose style and said, "Whoever wishes to attain an English style, familiar but not coarse, elegant but not ostentatious, must give his days and nights to the volumes of Addison". While Addison's style was certainly more technically refined than Steele's, later critics like James Leigh-Hunt and George Sherburn have indicated a preference for the latter's passion and spontaneity. Others like JurgenHabermas have

suggested that the Spectator essays effected a "structural transformation of the public sphere" in18th century England through their persistent engagement with matters concerning the emergent middle class. Scott Paul Gordon has argued that by presenting their subjects through the

discerning gaze of Mr. Spectator, Addison and Steele introduced a form of modern subjectivity based on the readers’ anxiety about being constantly monitored and their resultant impulse to improve themselves. While critics like Stuart Sherman trace the evolution of a new form of private identity by examining the structural similarities between the periodical essay and the Puritan diary, others like Scott Black focus on the literary form as a site of confluence of print

technology and urban culture that led to the creation of an urban “civil society”, one that was based on the transformation of a “private ethos of friendship” into a “public discourse of sociability”.